New Jersey

Reporter's Privilege Compendium

Thomas J. Cafferty, Esquire
Nomi I. Lowy, Esquire
Lauren James-Weir, Esquire
Gibbons P.C.
One Gateway Center
Newark, NJ 07102-5310
Direct: 973-596-4863 Fax: 973-639-6267
tcafferty@gibbonslaw.com
nlowy@gibbonslaw.com
ljames-weir@gibbonslaw.com
Special thanks to the original author of this chapter, Arlene M. Turinchak, Esq.

Last updated September 2021

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I. Introduction: History & Background

New Jersey originally adopted a reporter's privilege in 1933. The original statute protected only the source of information, not the information itself. In 1960, the original act was repealed and a new statute, which included a privilege for information in addition to sources, was adopted.  The statute was again amended in 1977 to: (1) add a provision that information was privileged "whether or not disseminated;" and (2) broaden the privilege to make it applicable to all media, not merely print media. In 1979 the statute was amended again to establish a procedure for a criminal defendant to pierce the privilege and to specifically prohibit the use of search warrants to obtain reporters' materials except in very limited circumstances.

A detailed discussion of the history of the privilege and the expansive shield provided by the privilege was set forth by the New Jersey Supreme Court in In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14 (1989).

Today, the New Jersey Shield Law, N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21 et seq. and N.J.R.E. 508 (“Shield Law”) “provides the news media far-reaching protections that are equaled by few states in the nation.”  In re Venezia, 191 N.J. 259, 261-62 (2007). It affords newspersons a broad privilege against compulsory disclosure of the information they gather and the identities of the sources of that information.  In re Schuman, 222 N.J. Super. 387, 390 (App. Div. 1988), rev’d on other grounds, 114 N.J. 14 (1989).

In the event a reporter is subpoenaed, a responsive letter from counsel invoking the privilege and setting forth the case law regarding the broad scope of the privilege is very helpful in encouraging the party issuing the subpoena to withdraw same.

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II. Authority for and source of the right

The Shield Law is purely statutory, but is also included in New Jersey Rule of Evidence 508, which has been adopted by the New Jersey Supreme Court pursuant to the rule adoption provisions of N.J.S.A.2A:84A-36.  Although the state constitution contains a strong freedom of the press section, the courts have never found a newsperson's privilege originating in the state constitution.

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A. Shield law statute

(a) N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21 provides:

Subject to Rule 37 [N.J.R.E. 530], a person engaged on, engaged in, connected with, or employed by news media for the purpose of gathering, procuring, transmitting, compiling, editing or disseminating news for the general public or on whose behalf news is so gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated has a privilege to refuse to disclose, in any legal or quasi-legal proceeding or before any investigative body, including, but not limited to, any court, grand jury, petit jury, administrative agency, the Legislature or legislative committee, or elsewhere:

1. The source, author, means, agency or person from or through whom any information was procured, obtained, supplied, furnished, gathered, transmitted, compiled, edited, disseminated, or delivered; and
2. Any news or information obtained in the course of pursuing his professional activities whether or not it is disseminated.

The provisions of this rule insofar as it relates to radio or television stations shall not apply unless the radio or television station maintains and keeps open for inspection, for a period of at least 1 year from the date of an actual broadcast or telecast, an exact recording, transcription, kinescopic film or certified written transcript of the actual broadcast or telecast.

(b) N.J.S.A.2A:84A-21a provides:

Unless a different meaning clearly appears from the context of this act, as used in this act:

1. "News media" means newspapers, magazines, press associations, news agencies, wire services, radio, television or other similar printed, photographic, mechanical or electronic means of disseminating news to the general public.
2. "News" means any written, oral or pictorial information gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated by, or on behalf of any person engaged in, engaged on, connected with or employed by a news media and so procured or obtained while such required relationship is in effect.
3. "Newspaper" means a paper that is printed and distributed ordinarily not less frequently than once a week and that contains news, articles of opinion, editorials, features, advertising, or other matter regarded as of current interest, has a paid circulation and has been entered at a United States post office as second class matter.
4. "Magazine" means a publication containing news which is published and distributed periodically, has a paid circulation and has been entered at a United States post office as second class matter.
5. "News agency" means a commercial organization that collects and supplies news to subscribing newspapers, magazines, periodicals and news broadcasters.
6. "Press association" means an association of newspapers or magazines formed to gather and distribute news to its members.
7. "Wire service" means a news agency that sends out syndicated news copy by wire to subscribing newspapers, magazines, periodicals or news broadcasters.
8. "In the course of pursuing his professional activities" means any situation, including a social gathering, in which a reporter obtains information for the purpose of disseminating it to the public, but does not include any situation in which a reporter intentionally conceals from the source the fact that he is a reporter, and does not include any situation in which a reporter is an eyewitness to, or participant in, any act involving physical violence or property damage.

(c) N.J.S.A.  2A:84A-21.1 provides:

Where a newsperson is required to disclose information pursuant to a subpoena issued by or on behalf of a defendant in a criminal proceeding, not including proceedings before administrative or investigative bodies, grand juries, or legislative committees or commissions, the provisions and procedures in this act are applicable to the claim and exercise of the newsperson's privilege under Rule 27 (C. 2A:84A-21).

(d) N.J.S.A.  2A:84A-21.2 provides:

Proceedings pursuant to this act shall take place before the trial, except that the court may allow a motion to institute proceedings pursuant to this act to be made during trial if the court determines that the evidence sought is newly discovered and could not have been discovered earlier through the exercise of due diligence.

(e) N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.3 provides:

1. To sustain a claim of the newsperson's privilege under Rule 27 [Rule 508(a)] the claimant shall make a prima facie showing that he is engaged in, connected with or employed by a news media for the purpose of gathering, procuring, transmitting, compiling, editing or disseminating news for the general public or on whose behalf news is so gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated, and that the subpoenaed materials were obtained in the course of pursuing his professional activities.
2. To overcome a finding by the court that the claimant has made a prima facie showing under a. above, the party seeking enforcement of the subpoena shall show by clear and convincing evidence that the privilege has been waived under Rule 37 [Rule 530] (C. 2A:84A-29) or by a preponderance of the evidence that there is a reasonable probability that the subpoenaed materials are relevant, material and necessary to the defense, that they could not be secured from any less intrusive source, that the value of the material sought as it bears upon the issue of guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome which may be overcome by evidence that all or part of the information sought is irrelevant, immaterial, unnecessary to the defense, or that it can be secured from another source. Publication shall constitute a waiver only as to the specific material published.
3. The determinations to be made by the court pursuant to this section shall be made only after a hearing in which the party claiming the privilege and the party seeking enforcement of the subpoena shall have a full opportunity to present evidence and argument with respect to each of the materials or items sought to be subpoenaed.

(f) N.J.S.A.  2A:84A-21.4 provides:

Upon a finding by the court that there has been a waiver as to any of the materials sought or that any of the materials sought meet the criteria set forth in subsection 3.b., the court shall order the production of such materials, and such materials only, for in camera inspection and determination as to its probable admissibility in the trial. The party claiming the privilege and the party seeking enforcement of the subpoena shall be entitled to a hearing in connection with the in camera inspection of such materials by the court, during which hearing each party shall have a full opportunity to be heard. If the court, after its in camera review of the materials, determines that such materials are admissible according to the standards set forth in subsection 3.b., the court shall direct production of such materials, and such materials only.

(g) N.J.S.A.2A:84A-21.5 provides:

After any hearing conducted by the court pursuant to section 3 or 4 hereof, the court shall make specific findings of fact and conclusions of law with respect to its rulings, which findings shall be in writing or set forth on the record.

(h) N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.6 provides:

An interlocutory appeal taken from a decision to uphold or quash a subpoena shall act as a stay of all penalties which may have been imposed for failure to comply with the court's order. The record on appeal shall be kept under seal until such time as appeals are exhausted. In the event that all material or any part thereof is found to be privileged, the record as to that privileged material shall remain permanently sealed. Any subpoenaed materials which shall, upon exhaustion and determination of such appeals, be found to be privileged, shall be returned to the party claiming the privilege.

(i) N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.7 provides:

Where proceedings are instituted hereunder by one of several co-defendants in a criminal trial, notice shall be provided to all of the co-defendants. Any co-defendant shall have the right to intervene if the co-defendant can demonstrate, pursuant to section 3, that the materials sought by the issuance of the subpoena bear upon his guilt or innocence. Where such intervention is sought by a co-defendant, that co-defendant shall be required, prior to being permitted to participate in any in camera proceeding, to make that showing required of a defendant in section 3.

(j) N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.8 provides:

If the court finds no reasonable basis for requesting the information has been shown, costs, including counsel fee, may be assessed against the party seeking enforcement of the subpoena. Where an application for costs or counsel fee is made, the judge shall set forth his reasons for awarding or denying same.

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B. State constitutional provision

Although the state constitution contains a strong freedom of the press section the courts have never found a newsperson's privilege originating in the state constitution.

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C. Federal constitutional provision

The New Jersey courts have not based any finding of privilege on the First Amendment.

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D. Other sources

There are no other sources for a newsperson's privilege in New Jersey.

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III. Scope of protection

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A. Generally

New Jersey has one of the strongest newsperson's privilege statutes in the nation.  The Shield Law states, in pertinent part:

Subject to Rule 37 [N.J.R.E 530], a person engaged on, engaged in, connected with, or employed by news media for the purpose of gathering, procuring, transmitting, compiling, editing or disseminating news for the general public or on whose behalf news is so gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated has a privilege to refuse to disclose, in any legal or quasi-legal proceeding or before any investigative body, including, but not limited to, any court, grand jury, petit jury, administrative agency, the Legislature or legislative committee, or elsewhere:

(a) The source, author, means, agency or person from or through whom any information was procured, obtained, supplied, furnished, gathered, transmitted, compiled, edited, disseminated, or delivered; and

(b) Any news or information obtained in the course of pursuing his professional activities whether or not it is disseminated.

N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.

“A reporter acts ‘in the course of pursuing his professional activities’ whenever he ‘obtains information for the purpose of disseminating it to the public.’”  In re Venezia, 191 N.J. at 271 (citing N.J.S.A. 2A:84A‑21a(h)).  The only exceptions to this are if a reporter intentionally conceals his or her professional identity from a source or if a reporter is a witness to, or a participant in, any act of physical violence or property damage.  Id.

The New Jersey Supreme Court has made clear that the Shield Law encompasses a plethora of newsgathering activities, whether or not those activities are specifically enumerated in the statute.  See Maressa v. N.J. Monthly, 89 N.J. at 188. “The privileges [sources and information] were intended to apply to every aspect of the news process.”  Id. at 194-95.  The Shield Law “not only covers all information received during the newsgathering process, but also information that is published in a news periodical, whether or not the source is confidential.”  In re Venezia, 191 N.J. at 271.  In fact, under the Shield Law, “a news reporter generally can refuse to disclose in a legal inquiry any information concerning a published news article.”  Id. at 262.

The privilege afforded by the Shield Law is that of the news media and not the source.  State v. Boiardo, 83 N.J. 350 (1980) (“Boiardo II”). It is absolute, absent a conflicting constitutional right, e.g., a criminal defendant’s Sixth Amendment rights.  Maressa v. N.J. Monthly, 89 N.J. 176, 189 (1982).

When a subpoena has been issued by a defendant in a criminal matter, the burden is on the defendant to prove that the subpoenaed material is relevant, material, and necessary to the defense, that it cannot be secured by less intrusive means, that the value of the material as it bears upon guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome.  See N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.3(b) and State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446, 462 (1980) (“Boiardo I”).  Once the criminal defendant satisfies these criteria the court then is required to review the materials or potential testimony in camera to determine the admissibility. Only if the court also finds the materials and/or testimony will be admissible will it order the materials produced or the reporter to testify.  In re Farber, 78 N.J. 259 (1978); Boiardo I, 82 N.J. at 446.

The Shield Law offers a broad definition of "news" and "news media," even finding an annual rating of the financial condition of insurance companies to be "news" within the privilege. In re Burnett, 269 N.J. Super. 493 (1994); see also In re Avila, 206 N.J. Super. 61 (App. Div. 1985) (upholding the claim of privilege to a free publication); Trump v. O’Brien, 403 N.J. Super. 210 (App. Div. 2008) (opining that authors of books may also be protected); Too Much Media, LLC v. Hale, 206 N.J. 209 (2011) (noting that the protections of the Shield Law are not limited to traditional news outlets like newspapers and magazines but refusing to extend the protections to online message boards, characterizing them as “little more than forums for conversation” and not similar to traditional news sources).  The exceptions to the privilege have been narrowly construed. Even where a reporter was present at the scene of physical violence the reporter's testimony will not be compelled if other witnesses are available. State v. Santiago, 250 N.J. Super. 30 (1991).

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B. Absolute or qualified privilege

Once the privilege attaches, it is absolute in civil proceedings. Absent waiver, a party to civil litigation may not obtain materials or testimony from a newsperson.  See Maressa v. N.J. Monthly, 89 N.J. 176, 189 (1982) (Shield Law is absolute, absent a conflicting constitutional right).

In criminal proceedings the privilege is not absolute.  It may be overcome by a criminal defendant upon a showing that the subpoenaed material is relevant, material, and necessary to the defense, that it cannot be secured by less intrusive means, that the value of the material as it bears upon guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome.  See N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.3(b) and State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446, 462 (1980) (“Boiardo I”).

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C. Type of case

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1. Civil

The privilege is absolute in civil proceedings.  See Maressa v. New Jersey Monthly, 89 N.J. 176 (1982) (Privilege is absolute in defamation actions). The newsperson may waive the privilege, but a partial waiver is not construed to be a total waiver and publication in a newspaper or news broadcast does not constitute a waiver.  In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14 (1989).

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2. Criminal

In criminal proceedings the privilege is not absolute, it may be pierced by a criminal defendant upon a showing that "by a preponderance of the evidence that there is a reasonable probability that the subpoenaed materials are relevant, material and necessary to the defense, that they could not be secured from any less intrusive source, that the value of the material sought as it bears upon the issue of guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome which may be overcome by evidence that all or part of the information sought is irrelevant, immaterial, unnecessary to the defense, or that it can be secured from another source.” See N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.3(b).   Even after the defendant makes such a showing the court is required to review the materials or potential testimony in camera to determine the admissibility. Only if the court also finds the materials and/or testimony will be admissible will it order the materials produced or the reporter to testify.  In re Myron Farber, 78 N.J. 259 (1978); State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446 (1980).

As in a civil action, a prosecutor may not pierce the privilege, unless the reporter was an "eyewitness to, or participant in, any act involving physical violence or property damage" or the reporter concealed from the source the fact that he or she was a reporter.  N.J.S.A. 2A:84A–21a(h).  The New Jersey Supreme Court has held that a reporter who arrives at the scene of a fire while the fire is ongoing is not an eyewitness to property damage. Matter of Woodhaven Lumber and Millwork, 123 NJ 481 (1991).  Even where a reporter was present at the scene of physical violence the reporter's testimony will not be compelled if other witnesses are available. State v. Santiago, 250 N.J. Super. 30 (1991).

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3. Grand jury

The privilege applies to Grand Jury subpoenas in the same manner as any other proceeding.

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D. Information and/or identity of source

The New Jersey Shield Law by its specific terms protects both the source and the information held by a reporter. Because it protects both the source and the information, any and all information that would identify the source, directly or indirectly, is privileged.

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E. Confidential and/or nonconfidential information

There is no requirement in the statute that the source request anonymity or that the reporter has promised confidentiality to invoke the privilege. The privilege belongs to the reporter and is his/hers to waive.

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F. Published and/or non-published material

A reporter may waive the privilege, but a partial waiver is not construed to be a total waiver and publication in a newspaper or news broadcast does not constitute a waiver.  In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14 (1989). The Shield Law “not only covers all information received during the newsgathering process, but also information that is published in a news periodical, whether or not the source is confidential.”  In re Venezia, 191 N.J. at 271.  In fact, under the Shield Law, “a news reporter generally can refuse to disclose in a legal inquiry any information concerning a published news article.”  Id. at 262.

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G. Reporter's personal observations

“A reporter acts ‘in the course of pursuing his professional activities’ whenever he ‘obtains information for the purpose of disseminating it to the public.’”  In re Venezia, 191 N.J. at 271 (citing N.J.S.A. 2A:84A‑21a(h)).  The only exceptions to this are if a reporter intentionally conceals his or her professional identity from a source or if a reporter is a witness to, or a participant in, any act of physical violence or property damage.  Id. However, the New Jersey Supreme Court has held that a reporter who arrives at the scene of a fire while the fire is ongoing is not an eyewitness to property damage. Matter of Woodhaven Lumber and Millwork, 123 N.J. 481 (1991). Even where a reporter was present at the scene of physical violence the reporter's testimony will not be compelled if other witnesses are available. State v. Santiago, 250 N.J. Super. 30 (1991).

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H. Media as a party

Whether or not the media is a party to the litigation has no bearing on the invocation of the privilege.

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I. Defamation actions

The privilege cannot be pierced in defamation actions. The media may invoke the privilege against testimony or production of materials in a defamation action as in any other action. Maressa v. New Jersey Monthly, 89 N.J. 176 (1982).

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IV. Who is covered

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A. Statutory and case law definitions

Traditional newsgathering terms are defined by the statute, only non-traditional news gatherers have been defined by case law.

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1. Traditional news gatherers

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a. Reporter

The privilege is afforded to any "person engaged on, engaged in, connected with, or employed by news media for the purpose of gathering, procuring, transmitting, compiling, editing or disseminating news for the general public or on whose behalf news is so gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated." The privilege is limited to information the reporter obtains "in the course of pursuing his professional activities," but that definition itself is broad. "In the course of pursuing his professional activities" means "any situation, including a social gathering, in which a reporter obtains information for the purpose of disseminating it to the public but does not include any situation in which a reporter intentionally conceals from the source the fact that he is a reporter, and does not include any situation in which a reporter is an eyewitness to, or participant in, any act involving physical violence or property damage."

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b. Editor

Because the statute states that the privilege extends to any "person engaged on, engaged in, or connected with, or employed by news media for the purpose of gathering, procuring, transmitting, compiling, editing or disseminating news for the general public or on whose behalf news is so gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated," it includes editors.  See Gastman v. North Jersey Newspapers, 254 N.J. Super. 140 (App. Div. 1992).

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c. News

Under the privilege "news" is defined as "any written, oral or pictorial information gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated by, or on behalf of any person engaged in, engaged on, connected with or employed by a news media and so procured or obtained while such required relationship is in effect."

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d. Photo journalist

Although "photojournalist" is not defined under the privilege, because the statute states that the privilege extends to any "person engaged on, engaged in, or connected with, or employed by news media for the purpose of gathering, procuring, transmitting, compiling, editing or disseminating news for the general public or on whose behalf news is so gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited or disseminated," it has been interpreted to include photojournalists. N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-(a).

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e. News organization/medium

The New Jersey statute was amended in 1977 to extend the privilege to all media. The current definition of "news media" includes "newspapers, magazines, press associations, news agencies, wire services, radio, television or other similar printed, photographic, mechanical or electronic means of disseminating news to the general public." Although web sites are not specifically mentioned in the statute the inclusion of "electronic means of disseminating news" is broad enough to include web sites.  Indeed, in Too Much Media, LLC v. Hale, 206 N.J. 209 (2011), the Supreme Court stated that the Shield Law was not limited to traditional news outlets but also encompasses other means of disseminating news which are similar to traditional news sources.  See also In re Jan. 11, 2013 Subpoena, 432 N.J. Super. 570 (Law Div. 2013) (applying Too Much Media and holding that the writer and editor of a blog reporting an alleged waste corruption and mismanagement in local government was entitled to invoke the Shield Law).

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2. Others, including non-traditional news gatherers

The New Jersey statute was amended in 1977 to extend the privilege to all media. The current definition of "news media" includes "newspapers, magazines, press associations, news agencies, wire services, radio, television or other similar printed, photographic, mechanical or electronic means of disseminating news to the general public." However, N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21 contains the following qualifying language regarding radio and television:

The provisions of this rule insofar as it relates to radio or television stations shall not apply unless the radio or television station maintains and keeps open for inspection, for a period of at least 1 year from the date of an actual broadcast or telecast, an exact recording, transcription, kinescopic film or certified written transcript of the actual broadcast or telecast.

Although web sites are not specifically mentioned in the statute, the inclusion of "electronic means of disseminating news" is broad enough to include web sites.  Indeed, in Too Much Media, LLC v. Hale, 206 N.J. 209 (2011), the New Jersey Supreme Court stated that the Shield Law was not limited to traditional news outlets but also encompasses other means of disseminating news, which are similar to traditional news sources.  See also In re Jan. 11, 2013 Subpoena, 432 N.J. Super. 570 (Law Div. 2013) (applying Too Much Media and holding that the writer and editor of a blog reporting on alleged waste corruption and mismanagement in local government was entitled to invoke the Shield Law).

The publisher of an annual report rating various insurers was held to be a news medium, Petition of Burnett, 269 N.J. Super. 493 (Law Div. 1993); a public relations firm hired to manage adverse publicity surrounding a chemical explosion was held not to be a news medium, In re Napp Technologies, Inc. Litigation, 338 N.J. Super. 176 (Law 2000).

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B. Whose privilege is it?

The privilege belongs to the news person and is his or hers to invoke.  Too Much Media, LLC v. Hale, 206 N.J. at 239.

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V. Procedures for issuing and contesting subpoenas

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A. What subpoena server must do

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1. Service of subpoena, time

Pursuant to the New Jersey Rules of Court a subpoena for testimony must be served on the newsperson, within the state of New Jersey, at least 5 days prior to trial.  R.1:9-1.  A subpoena for testimony during discovery must be served at least 10 days prior to the date for testimony.

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2. Deposit of security

A witness fee must be paid at the time of service of the subpoena, unless the person is a witness in a criminal action for the State or an indigent Defendant.  R. 1:9-3.

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3. Filing of affidavit

The subpoena server is not required to file an affidavit with the court.

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4. Judicial approval

There is no judicial approval required to serve a subpoena.  An attorney or party may issue a subpoena in the name of the Clerk. R. 1:9-1.

When a subpoena has been issued by a defendant in a criminal matter, the burden is on the defendant to prove that the subpoenaed material is relevant, material, and necessary to the defense, that it cannot be secured by less intrusive means, that the value of the material as it bears upon guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome.  See N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.3(b) and State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446, 462 (1980) (“Boiardo I”).  Once the criminal defendant satisfies these criteria the court then is required to review the materials or potential testimony in camera to determine the admissibility. Only if the court also finds the materials and/or testimony will be admissible will it order the materials produced or the reporter to testify.  In re Farber, 78 N.J. 259 (1978); Boiardo I, 82 N.J. at 446.

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5. Service of police or other administrative subpoenas

Subpoenas issued under the authority of administrative agencies are governed under N.J.A.C. 1:1-1.1, et. seq.

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B. How to Quash

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1. Contact other party first

There is no requirement that the other party be contacted prior to a motion to quash. However, because the privilege in New Jersey is absolute (absent a conflicting constitutional interest), a letter or telephone call in which case law is cited and withdrawal of the subpoena is requested will usually be effective.

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2. Filing an objection or a notice of intent

There is no requirement that notice of intent to quash be provided.

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3. File a motion to quash

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a. Which court?

The motion should be filed in the court that is hearing the case.

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b. Motion to compel

The rules of court require that the motion to quash come from the subpoenaed party. Some attorneys will await the motion to compel rather than moving to quash, but sanctions could still be imposed for failing to obey the subpoena.

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c. Timing

The motion to quash should be filed prior to the return date of the subpoena if possible. If that is not possible, notice to the party issuing the subpoena prior to the return date and filing as soon thereafter as possible is recommended.

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d. Language

The motion to quash must include a certification or affidavit from the reporter invoking the Shield Law and attesting to the fact that he or she qualifies for the protections of the Shield Law.

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e. Additional material

Because the Shield Law is so extensive only citation to the law and a brief outlining the relevant case decisions should accompany the motion; no treatise information is necessary.

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4. In camera review

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a. Necessity

The newsperson is not required to make any disclosure, to the court or otherwise, to successfully assert the privilege. In fact the New Jersey Supreme Court has held that an in camera disclosure "represents precisely the same threat to the interests protected by the privilege as disclosure to counsel or to the world." State v. Boirdo, 82 N.J. 446 (1980).

In the context of a motion to quash a subpoena served by a criminal defendant, once the criminal defendant makes the appropriate showing that the subpoenaed materials are relevant, material and necessary to the defense, that they could not be secured from any less intrusive source, that the value of the material sought as it bears upon the issue of guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome, the court is required to review the materials or potential testimony in camera to determine the admissibility. Only if the court also finds the materials and/or testimony will be admissible will it order the materials produced or the reporter to testify.  In re Farber, 78 N.J. 259 (1978); State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446 (1980).

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b. Consequences of consent

Consent to an in camera review may be deemed a waiver of the privilege.

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c. Consequences of refusing

None.

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5. Briefing schedule

The brief in support of the motion to quash in a civil pre-trial proceeding must be submitted with the motion, at least 16 days prior to the return date of the motion. The opposition brief, if any, must be filed 8 days before the return date, and any reply thereto must be filed 4 days before the return date.  R. 1:6-3.  The brief of the moving party and any brief in opposition shall not exceed 40 pages, exclusive of any table of contents and citations, and any reply brief is limited to 15 pages.  R. 1:6-5.

For subpoenas issued for trial testimony the motion to quash should be filed in accordance with court rules.

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6. Amicus briefs

Amicus briefs are not generally submitted at the trial level although they are permitted. An amicus can ask to be heard at any level.  R.1:13-9.

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VI. Substantive law on contesting subpoenas

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A. Burden, standard of proof

Once a reporter or editor has demonstrated that he or she is a member of the news media and the information was gathered in the course of pursuing his/her professional activities in a civil matter, the privilege is absolute, and only a criminal defendant can proceed to attempt to compel testimony. In criminal proceedings the privilege is not absolute; it may be pierced by a criminal defendant upon a showing that "by a preponderance of the evidence that there is a reasonable probability that the subpoenaed materials are relevant, material and necessary to the defense, that they could not be secured from any less intrusive source, that the value of the material sought as it bears upon the issue of guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome which may be overcome by evidence that all or part of the information sought is irrelevant, immaterial, unnecessary to the defense, or that it can be secured from another source." Even after the defendant makes such a showing the court is required to review the materials or potential testimony in camera to determine the admissibility. Only if the court also finds the materials and/or testimony will be admissible will it order the materials produced or the reporter to testify.

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B. Elements

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1. Relevance of material to case at bar

The information to be obtained by a criminal defendant from a news person must be "relevant, material and necessary" to the defense. In addition, it must not be excludable under any other privilege or evidence rule.

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2. Material unavailable from other sources

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a. How exhaustive must search be?

The criminal defendant must show, by a preponderance of the evidence, that the information or testimony "could not be secured from any less intrusive source." If the substantially similar information can be obtained from another source, the material is not unavailable.  Courts will search exhaustively for an alternative source.  State v. Boiardo, 83 N.J. 350 (1980).

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b. What proof of search does a subpoenaing party need to make?

In a criminal proceeding, the burden is on the defendant to show "by a preponderance of the evidence that there is a reasonable probability that the subpoenaed materials are relevant, material and necessary to the defense, that they could not be secured from any less intrusive source, that the value of the material sought as it bears upon the issue of guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome, which may be overcome by evidence that all or part of the information sought is irrelevant, immaterial, unnecessary to the defense, or that it can be secured from another source."  State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446, 459 n. 10 (1978).

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c. Source is an eyewitness to a crime

The fact that a newsperson’s source is an eyewitness to a crime does not overcome the privilege.

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3. Balancing of interests

Only after the criminal defendant has proven by a preponderance of the evidence that information is relevant, necessary and material to his or her defense, and that the material is not available from any less intrusive source, does the court enter into a balancing. The court must then determine that the value of the material sought as it bears upon the issue of guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome.

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4. Subpoena not overbroad or unduly burdensome

The privilege specifically requires that after the criminal defendant has made the initial showing the court must then determine that the value of the material sought as it bears upon the issue of guilt or innocence outweighs the privilege against disclosure, and that the request is not overbroad, oppressive, or unreasonably burdensome.

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5. Threat to human life

No decision of the court has addressed the issue of threat to human life, nor does the statute itself deal with this issue.  The Shield Law excludes from the definition of “in the course of pursing professional activities” circumstances where the reporter is an eyewitness to, or a participant in, any act involving physical violence or property damage. Additionally, the statute governing newsroom searches permits a search where there is probable cause to believe "seizure is necessary to prevent the death of or serious bodily injury to a human being." N. J. S.A. 2A:84A-21.9.

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6. Material is not cumulative

Under the standards set forth in the statute cumulative material would be available from another source and therefore the criminal defendant could not overcome the privilege.

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7. Civil/criminal rules of procedure

If a newsperson is forced to move to quash a subpoena and the court finds there was no reasonable basis for requesting the information, it may award costs, including counsel fees, against the party seeking to enforce the subpoena.  N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.8. As a practical matter fees and costs are almost never awarded.

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8. Other elements

Co-defendants are permitted to join in seeking information from a newsperson but the co-defendant must meet the same burden as the defendant issuing the subpoena. Material provided to one defendant is not automatically provided to all defendants.

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C. Waiver or limits to testimony

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1. Is the privilege waivable?

The privilege belongs to the newsperson and may be waived, in whole or in part, by the newsperson.  Too Much Media, LLC v. Hale, 206 N.J. at 239.   A partial waiver is not construed to be a total waiver and publication in a newspaper or news broadcast does not constitute a waiver.  In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14 (1989).

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2. Elements of waiver

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a. Disclosure of confidential source's name

The name of the source may be disclosed without a waiver occurring, if the disclosure itself is privileged (for example, publication in a news periodical). See N.J.R.E. 37; In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14, 25 (N.J. 1989).  A reporter may reveal the name to an editor, or another reporter. Such disclosure is not considered a waiver, nor is disclosure to an attorney in the course of defending against the subpoena. Disclosure to any other person in a non-privileged context would be a waiver. The statute creating the privilege specifically refers to a separate waiver statute:

Rule 37. A person waives his right or privilege to refuse to disclose or to prevent another from disclosing a specified matter if he or any other person while the holder thereof has (a) contracted with anyone not to claim the right or privilege or, (b) without coercion and with knowledge of his right or privilege, made disclosure of any part of the privileged matter or consented to such a disclosure made by anyone.

A disclosure which is itself privileged or otherwise protected by the common law, statutes or rules of court of this State, or by lawful contract, shall not constitute a waiver under this section. The failure of a witness to claim a right or privilege with respect to 1 question shall not operate as a waiver with respect to any other question.

N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-29.

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b. Disclosure of non-confidential source's name

The New Jersey newsperson's privilege makes no distinction between sources who requested and/or were promised confidentiality and other sources.  The privilege applies to both confidential and non-confidential sources.  Disclosure of the name to another person who is not also protected by the privilege is a waiver.

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c. Partial disclosure of information

If a newsperson makes a partial disclosure in a non-privileged context, it is a waiver only as to the materials disclosed. All other information is still protected by the privilege.  In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14 (1989); Maressa v. N.J. Monthly, 89 N.J. 176 (1982); In re Venezia, 191 N.J. 259 (2007).

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d. Other elements

None.

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3. Agreement to partially testify act as waiver?

If a newsperson agrees to partially testify, for example, that the article is accurate, such testimony acts as a waiver. The court has held that if the reporter testifies, the right of cross examination could not be limited and an effective cross examination would necessarily inquire further into the information held by the newsperson. In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14 (1989).

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VII. What constitutes compliance?

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A. Newspaper articles

Newspersons cannot be compelled to testify solely as to the authenticity of a newspaper article. The court can take judicial notice of the article and publication under the evidence rules, in particular N.J.R.E. 902(f).

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B. Broadcast materials

(a) N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21 provides, in part:

The provisions of this rule insofar as it relates to radio or television stations shall not apply unless the radio or television station maintains and keeps open for inspection, for a period of at least 1 year from the date of an actual broadcast or telecast, an exact recording, transcription, kinescopic film or certified written transcript of the actual broadcast or telecast.

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C. Testimony vs. affidavits

If the court has ordered testimony, an affidavit may only be substituted with the court's permission.

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D. Non-compliance remedies

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1. Civil contempt

A reporter who fails to comply with an order to testify may be charged with contempt. Civil contempt is punished by a $50 fine per contempt charge. N.J.S.A. 2A:10-5.

Contempt may be prosecuted in a summary manner where the conduct has obstructed, or would continue to obstruct the proceeding; it occurred in the presence of the judge; the conduct demonstrates willfulness; immediate adjudication is necessary for the purposes of efficiency; and the judge has provided the contemnor the opportunity to respond.  R. 1:10.

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a. Fines

The maximum fine for a summary contempt proceeding is $1,000.00. See In re Buehrer, 50 N.J. 501, 522 (1967).

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b. Jail

The maximum jail time for a summary proceeding is 6 months. See In re Buehrer, 50 N.J. 501, 522 (1967).

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2. Criminal contempt

If the matter is brought under an indictment pursuant to N.J.S.A. 2C:29-9, contempt is a crime of the fourth degree meaning that maximum fine is $10,000.00 and the maximum prison term is eighteen (18) months. N.J.S.A. 2C:43-3; 2C:43-6.

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3. Other remedies

None.

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VIII. Appealing

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A. Timing

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1. Interlocutory appeals

The appeal of an order of disclosure is interlocutory; however, the New Jersey Supreme Court has found that a decision ordering production "is immediately appealable as of right." State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446, 471 (1980). The privilege specifically holds that the filing of an interlocutory appeal "shall act as a stay of all penalties which may have been imposed for failure to comply with the court's order." N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.6. Once the appeal is filed the record is sealed until all appeals are exhausted.  In the event that all material or any part thereof is found to be privileged, the record as to that privileged material shall remain permanently sealed. Id.

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2. Expedited appeals

The privilege does not specifically provide for an expedited appeal but the newsperson can move to expedite the appeal. Such requests are usually granted.  Interlocutory appeals are effectively expedited.

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B. Procedure

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1. To whom is the appeal made?

Appeals from the municipal court are made to the Assignment Judge of the Superior Court, appeals from the Superior Court are made to the Appellate Division and then to the New Jersey Supreme Court. A notice of appeal is forwarded to the court or, if an emergent appeal from the Superior Court or Appellate Division is necessary, to the respective Appellate Judge or Supreme Court Justice assigned to hear emergent matters at that time.

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2. Stays pending appeal

The filing of an appeal from a decision to uphold or quash a subpoena shall act as a stay of all penalties which may have been imposed for failure to comply with the court’s order.  N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.6.

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3. Nature of appeal

The appeal is interlocutory; however, the New Jersey Supreme Court has found that a decision ordering production "is immediately appealable as of right." State v. Boiardo, 82 N.J. 446, 471 (1980).

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4. Standard of review

The standard of review will depend upon the nature of the appeal. The appellate court will review the entire record in the exercise of its original jurisdiction under the Rules of Court. R. 2:10-5.

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5. Addressing mootness questions

N.J.S.A.  2A:84A-21.2 provides:

Proceedings pursuant to this act shall take place before the trial, except that the court may allow a motion to institute proceedings pursuant to this act to be made during trial if the court determines that the evidence sought is newly discovered and could not have been discovered earlier through the exercise of due diligence.

The mootness issue does not ordinarily arise in New Jersey.

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6. Relief

Depending upon the issue before the appellate court, the appellate court may affirm or reverse the lower court’s decision on the motion to quash or remand the matter for further proceedings. Because of the emergent nature of most applications related to the privilege, the court will usually issue a final determination rather than remand.

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IX. Other issues

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A. Newsroom searches

42 U.SC. § 2000aa provides:

(a) Work product materials. Notwithstanding any other law, it shall be unlawful for a government officer or employee, in connection with the investigation or prosecution of a criminal offense, to search for or seize any work product materials possessed by a person reasonably believed to have a purpose to disseminate to the public a newspaper, book, broadcast, or other similar form of public communication, in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce; but this provision shall not impair or affect the ability of any government officer or employee, pursuant to otherwise applicable law, to search for or seize such materials, if—

(1) there is probable cause to believe that the person possessing such materials has committed or is committing the criminal offense to which the materials relate:  Provided, however, That a government officer or employee may not search for or seize such materials under the provisions of this paragraph if the offense to which the materials relate consists of the receipt, possession, communication, or withholding of such materials or the information contained therein (but such a search or seizure may be conducted under the provisions of this paragraph if the offense consists of the receipt, possession, or communication of information relating to the national defense, classified information, or restricted data under the provisions of section 793, 794, 797, or 798 of title 18, United States Code, or section 224, 225, or 227 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (42 U.S.C. 2274, 2275, 2277), or section 4 of the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950 (50 U.S.C. 783), or if the offense involves the production, possession, receipt, mailing, sale, distribution, shipment, or transportation of child pornography, the sexual exploitation of children, or the sale or purchase of children under section 2251, 2251A, 2252, or 2252A of title 18, United States Code); or

(2) there is reason to believe that the immediate seizure of such materials is necessary to prevent the death of, or serious bodily injury to, a human being.

(b) Other documents. Notwithstanding any other law, it shall be unlawful for a government officer or employee, in connection with the investigation or prosecution of a criminal offense, to search for or seize documentary materials, other than work product materials, possessed by a person in connection with a purpose to disseminate to the public a newspaper, book, broadcast, or other similar form of public communication, in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce; but this provision shall not impair or affect the ability of any government officer or employee, pursuant to otherwise applicable law, to search for or seize such materials,

if—

(1) there is probable cause to believe that the person possessing such materials has committed or is committing the criminal offense to which the materials relate: Provided, however, That a government officer or employee may not search for or seize such materials under the provisions of this paragraph if the offense to which the materials relate consists of the receipt, possession, communication, or withholding of such materials or the information contained therein (but such a search or seizure may be conducted under the provisions of this paragraph if the offense consists of the receipt, possession, or communication of information relating to the national defense, classified information, or restricted data under the provisions of section 793, 794, 797, or 798 of title 18, United States Code, or section 224, 225, or 227 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (42 U.S.C. 2274, 2275, 2277), or section 4 of the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950 (50 U.S.C. 783), or if the offense involves the production, possession, receipt, mailing, sale, distribution, shipment, or transportation of child pornography, the sexual exploitation of children, or the sale or purchase of children under section 2251, 2251A, 2252, or 2252A of title 18, United States Code);

(2) there is reason to believe that the immediate seizure of such materials is necessary to prevent the death of, or serious bodily injury to, a human being;

(3) there is reason to believe that the giving of notice pursuant to a subpena duces tecum would result in the destruction, alteration, or concealment of such materials; or

(4) such materials have not been produced in response to a court order directing compliance with a subpena duces tecum, and—

(A) all appellate remedies have been exhausted; or

(B) there is reason to believe that the delay in an investigation or trial occasioned by further proceedings relating to the subpoena would threaten the interests of justice.

(c) Objections to court ordered subpoenas; affidavits. In the event a search warrant is sought pursuant to paragraph (4)(B) of subsection (b), the person possessing the materials shall be afforded adequate opportunity to submit an affidavit setting forth the basis for any contention that the materials sought are not subject to seizure.

N.J.S.A. 2A:84A-21.9 provides:

News media person or entity; freedom from searches and seizures of documentary materials; exceptions

Any person, corporation, partnership, proprietorship or other entity engaged on, engaged in, connected with, or otherwise employed in gathering, procuring, transmitting, compiling, editing, publishing, or disseminating news for the public, or on whose behalf news is so gathered, procured, transmitted, compiled, edited, published or disseminated shall be free from searches and seizures, by State, county and local law enforcement officers with respect to any documentary materials obtained in the course of pursuing the aforesaid activities whether or not such material has been or will be disseminated or published.

This section shall not restrict or impair the ability of any law enforcement officer, pursuant to otherwise applicable law, to search for or seize such materials, if there is probable cause to believe that:

1. The person, corporation, partnership, proprietorship or other entity possessing the materials has committed or is committing the criminal offense for which the materials are sought; or
2. The immediate seizure of the materials is necessary to prevent the death of or serious bodily injury to a human being; or
3. The giving of notice pursuant to a subpoena duces tecum would result in the destruction, alteration or deliberate concealment of the documentary materials other than work product; or
4. The documentary materials, other than work product, have not been produced in response to a court order directing compliance with a subpoena duces tecum, and

(1) All appellate remedies have been exhausted by the party seeking to quash the subpoena duces tecum; or

(2) There is a probability that the delay in an investigation or trial occasioned by further proceedings relating to the subpoena would threaten the interests of justice. In the event a search warrant is sought pursuant to this subparagraph, the person, corporation, partnership, proprietorship or other entity possessing the materials shall be afforded adequate opportunity to submit an affidavit to the court setting forth the basis for any contention that the materials sought are not subject to seizure.

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B. Separation orders

The privilege commands that, with one limited exception relating to newly discovered evidence that could not have been discovered earlier, proceedings under the Shield Law "shall take place before the trial" and, therefore, the issue should be adjudicated prior to the trial and a separation order is unnecessary.  N.J.S.A.  2A:84A-21.2.

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C. Third-party subpoenas

There are no cases of third-party subpoenas to circumvent the privilege in New Jersey.

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D. The source's rights and interests

The source has no rights relevant to the privilege. The privilege belongs to the newsperson; the purpose of the privilege is to protect news-gathering activities "to the greatest extent permitted by the constitutions of the United States and New Jersey." In re Schuman, 114 N.J. 14, 20 (1989).

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